These results provide valuable insight for sponge restoration practice in Florida. However, our discovery of Florida’s high genetic diversity increases hope for resilience to future perturbations. Loggerhead sponge populations in Florida are vulnerable in the face of mass mortalities due to low connectivity with other areas in the region, as well as distance-limited and unpredictable local connectivity patterns. Evidence of a weak barrier to gene flow was found in Florida among sites situated on opposite sides of the islands in the Middle Keys. Populations are highly structured at the regional scale, whilst within Florida connectivity is present in a weak isolation by distance pattern, coupled with chaotic genetic patchiness. We found that genetic diversity levels were similar across all sites, but inbreeding and bottleneck signatures were present in Florida. We developed microsatellite markers and used them to genotype sponges from 14 locations in Florida and a site each in The Bahamas, Belize and Barbuda. This species is a dominant, habitat-forming component of marine ecosystems in the Caribbean region, but in Florida has suffered numerous mass mortality events. Here, we demonstrate a conservation genetics approach to inform restoration and management of the loggerhead sponge ( Spheciospongia vesparium) in the Florida Keys, USA. In addition, population genetics data reveal patterns of connectivity and gene flow between locations, enabling mangers to predict recovery and resilience, identify areas of local adaptation, and generate restoration plans. Genetic diversity is an important determinant of population fitness and resilience, and can require careful management to ensure sufficient variation is present. Preliminary evidence suggests that females also may benefit from protection by resident males against male intruders.Genetic tools can have a key role in informing conservation management of declining populations. For females benefits may derive from inclusive fitness and reduced food competition. Males may benefit from bonding with females by increased reproductive success via rank acquisition. It is suggested that under natural conditions social organisation of bonobos is characterised by strong inter-sexual bonds. Differences in social grooming appeared to be related to patterns of spatial association rather than to kinship. While most female-female associations did not last longer than one field season, long-term associations occurred predominantly between mixed-sex dyads and involved both close kin and unrelated individuals. In addition, they reveal strong social bonds between males and females. Our data from Lomako confirm the existence of spatial associations among resident females. Here we present data on spatial associations and affiliative relations among members of one wild community (Eyengo) for which genetic relationships were identified by analysing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. This seems to contradict assumed sex-differences in kinship deriving from a species-typical dispersal pattern of female exogamy and male philopatry. Studies of captive populations of bonobos suggest that females are more gregarious than males.
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